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• • • One Thousand and One Nights (: أَلْف لَيْلَة وَلَيْلَة‎, ʾAlf layla wa-layla) is a collection of folk tales compiled in Arabic during the. It is often known in English as the Arabian Nights, from the first English-language edition (c. 1721), which rendered the title as The Arabian Nights' Entertainment. The work was collected over many centuries by various authors, translators, and scholars across West, Central, and South Asia and North Africa. The tales themselves trace their roots back to ancient and medieval,,,, and folklore and literature. In particular, many tales were originally folk stories from the, while others, especially the frame story, are most probably drawn from the Hezār Afsān (: هزار افسان‎, lit. A Thousand Tales), which in turn relied partly on Indian elements.

What is common throughout all the editions of the Nights is the initial of the ruler and his wife and the incorporated throughout the tales themselves. The stories proceed from this original tale; some are framed within other tales, while others begin and end of their own accord. Some editions contain only a few hundred nights, while others include 1,001 or more. The bulk of the text is in prose, although verse is occasionally used for songs and riddles and to express heightened emotion.

Most of the poems are single or, although some are longer. Some of the stories commonly associated with The Nights, in particular ', ', and ', were not part of The Nights in its original Arabic versions but were added to the collection by and other European translators.

Scheherazade and Shahryār by, 1880 The main concerns Shahryār (: شهريار‎, from šahr-dār, lit. 'holder of realm' ), whom the narrator calls a ' king' ruling in 'India and China'. He is shocked to learn that his brother's wife is unfaithful; discovering that his own wife's infidelity has been even more flagrant, he has her killed. In his bitterness and grief, he decides that all women are the same. Shahryār begins to marry a succession of virgins only to execute each one the next morning, before she has a chance to dishonour him.

Eventually the, whose duty it is to provide them, cannot find any more virgins. (: شهرزاد‎, from Middle Persian čehr/lineage + āzād/noble ), the vizier's daughter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly agrees. On the night of their marriage, Scheherazade begins to tell the king a tale, but does not end it. The king, curious about how the story ends, is thus forced to postpone her execution in order to hear the conclusion. The next night, as soon as she finishes the tale, she begins (and only begins) a new one, and the king, eager to hear the conclusion of this tale, postpones her execution once again. This goes on for 1,001 nights. The tales vary widely: they include historical tales, love stories, tragedies, comedies, poems,, and various forms of.

Numerous stories depict,,, sorcerers, magicians, and legendary places, which are often intermingled with real people and geography, not always rationally. Common include the historical, his,, and the famous poet, despite the fact that these figures lived some 200 years after the fall of the, in which the frame tale of Scheherazade is set. Sometimes a character in Scheherazade's tale will begin telling other characters a story of his own, and that story may have another one told within it, resulting in a richly layered narrative texture. An Abbasid of the One Thousand and One Nights The different versions have different individually detailed endings (in some Scheherazade asks for a pardon, in some the king sees their children and decides not to execute his wife, in some other things happen that make the king distracted) but they all end with the king giving his wife a pardon and sparing her life. The narrator's standards for what constitutes a seem broader than in modern literature. While in many cases a story is cut off with the hero in danger of losing his life or another kind of deep trouble, in some parts of the full text Scheherazade stops her narration in the middle of an exposition of abstract philosophical principles or complex points of, and in one case during a detailed description of according to —and in all these cases turns out to be justified in her belief that the king's curiosity about the sequel would buy her another day of life.

History: versions and translations [ ] The history of the Nights is extremely complex and modern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story of how the collection as it currently exists came about. Summarises their findings: 'In the 1880s and 1890s a lot of work was done on the Nights by and others, in the course of which a consensus view of the history of the text emerged. Most scholars agreed that the Nights was a composite work and that the earliest tales in it came from and. At some time, probably in the early 8th century, these tales were translated into Arabic under the title Alf Layla, or 'The Thousand Nights'. This collection then formed the basis of The Thousand and One Nights. The original core of stories was quite small.

Then, in Iraq in the 9th or 10th century, this original core had Arab stories added to it—among them some tales about the. Also, perhaps from the 10th century onwards, previously independent sagas and story cycles were added to the compilation [.] Then, from the 13th century onwards, a further layer of stories was added in Syria and Egypt, many of these showing a preoccupation with sex, magic or low life. In the early modern period yet more stories were added to the Egyptian collections so as to swell the bulk of the text sufficiently to bring its length up to the full 1,001 nights of storytelling promised by the book’s title.' Possible Indian influence [ ] Devices found in Sanskrit literature such as frame stories and animal fables are seen by some scholars as lying at the root of the conception of the Nights. The motif of the wise young woman who delays and finally removes an impending danger by telling stories has been traced back to Indian sources. Indian folklore is represented in the Nights by certain animal stories, which reflect influence from ancient. The influence of the and is particularly notable.

Are a collection of 547, which are for the most part moral stories with an ethical purpose. The Tale of the Bull and the Ass and the linked Tale of the Merchant and his Wife are found in the frame stories of both the Jataka and the Nights. It is possible that the influence of the is via a Sanskrit adaptation called the Tantropakhyana. Only fragments of the original Sanskrit form of this work exist, but translations or adaptations exist in Tamil, Lao, Thai and Old Javanese.

The frame story is particularly interesting, as it follows the broad outline of a concubine telling stories in order to maintain the interest and favour of a king—although the basis of the collection of stories is from the Panchatantra—with its original Indian setting. The Panchatantra and various tales from Jatakas were first translated into Persian by in 570 CE, they were later translated into Arabic by in 750 CE. The Arabic version was translated into several languages, including Syriac, Greek, Hebrew and Spanish. Persian prototype: Hezār Afsān [ ]. A page from Kelileh va Demneh dated 1429, from Herat, a Persian version of the Panchatantra – depicts the manipulative jackal-vizier, Dimna, trying to lead his lion-king into war. The earliest mentions of the Nights refer to it as an Arabic translation from a Persian book, Hezār Afsān (or Afsaneh or Afsana), meaning 'The Thousand Stories'. In the 10th century compiled a catalogue of books (the 'Fihrist') in Baghdad.

He noted that the kings of Iran enjoyed 'evening tales and fables'. Al-Nadim then writes about the Persian Hezār Afsān, explaining the frame story it employs: a bloodthirsty king kills off a succession of wives after their wedding night; finally one concubine had the intelligence to save herself by telling him a story every evening, leaving each tale unfinished until the next night so that the king would delay her execution.

In the same century also refers to the Hezār Afsān, saying the Arabic translation is called Alf Khurafa ('A Thousand Entertaining Tales') but is generally known as Alf Layla ('A Thousand Nights'). He mentions the characters Shirāzd (Scheherazade) and Dināzād. No physical evidence of the Hezār Afsān has survived, so its exact relationship with the existing later Arabic versions remains a mystery. Apart from the Scheherazade frame story, several other tales have Persian origins, although it is unclear how they entered the collection. These stories include the cycle of 'King Jali'ad and his Wazir Shimas' and 'The Ten Wazirs or the History of King Azadbakht and his Son' (derived from the 7th-century Persian Bakhtiyārnāma). In the 1950s, the scholar suggested (on internal rather than historical evidence) that the Persian writer may have been responsible for the first Arabic translation of the frame story and some of the Persian stories later incorporated into the Nights.

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This would place genesis of the collection in the 8th century. Arabic versions [ ]. The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree. In the mid-20th century, the scholar found a document with a few lines of an Arabic work with the title The Book of the Tale of a Thousand Nights, dating from the 9th century. This is the earliest known surviving fragment of the Nights.

The first reference to the Arabic version under its full title The One Thousand and One Nights appears in Cairo in the 12th century. Professor Dwight Reynolds describes the subsequent transformations of the Arabic version: Some of the earlier Persian tales may have survived within the Arabic tradition altered such that Arabic Muslim names and new locations were substituted for pre-Islamic Persian ones, but it is also clear that whole cycles of Arabic tales were eventually added to the collection and apparently replaced most of the Persian materials. One such cycle of Arabic tales centres around a small group of historical figures from 9th-century Baghdad, including the caliph (died 809), his vizier (d.803) and the licentious poet (d. Another cluster is a body of stories from late medieval Cairo in which are mentioned persons and places that date to as late as the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Two main Arabic manuscript traditions of the Nights are known: the Syrian and the Egyptian. The Syrian tradition includes the oldest manuscripts; these versions are also much shorter and include fewer tales. It is represented in print by the so-called Calcutta I (1814–1818) and most notably by the Leiden edition (1984), which is based above all on the manuscript.

It is believed to be the purest expression of the style of the mediaeval Arabian Nights. Texts of the Egyptian tradition emerge later and contain many more tales of much more varied content; a much larger number of originally independent tales have been incorporated into the collection over the centuries, most of them after the Galland manuscript was written, and were being included as late as in the 18th and 19th centuries, perhaps in order to attain the eponymous number of 1001 nights.

The final product of this tradition, the so-called Egyptian, does contain 1001 nights and is reflected in print, with slight variations, by the editions known as the Bulaq (1835) and the Macnaghten or Calcutta II (1839–1842). All extant substantial versions of both recensions share a small common core of tales: • The Merchant and the Genie • • The Porter and the Three Ladies • • • The Hunchback cycle • Nur al-Din Ali and Anis al-Jalis • Ali Ibn Bakkar and Shams al-Nahar The texts of the Syrian recension do not contain much beside that core. It is debated which of the Arabic recensions is more 'authentic' and closer to the original: the Egyptian ones have been modified more extensively and more recently, and scholars such as have suspected that this may have been caused in part by European demand for a 'complete version'; but it appears that this type of modification has been common throughout the history of the collection, and independent tales have always been added to it. Modern translations [ ]. Sinbad the sailor and Ali Baba and the forty thieves by, 1896 The first European version (1704–1717) was translated into by from an Arabic text of the Syrian recension and other sources. This 12-volume work, ('The Thousand and one nights, Arab stories translated into French'), included stories that were not in the original Arabic manuscript. 'Aladdin's Lamp', 'Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves' and 'The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor' (as well as several other, lesser known tales) appeared first in Galland's translation and cannot be found in any of the original manuscripts.

He wrote that he heard them from a storyteller from, a scholar whom he called 'Hanna Diab.' Galland's version of the Nights was immensely popular throughout Europe, and later versions were issued by Galland's publisher using Galland's name without his consent. As scholars were looking for the presumed 'complete' and 'original' form of the Nights, they naturally turned to the more voluminous texts of the Egyptian recension, which soon came to be viewed as the 'standard version'.

The first translations of this kind, such as that of (1840, 1859), were. Unabridged and unexpurgated translations were made, first by, under the title The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night (1882, nine volumes), and then by, entitled (1885, ten volumes) – the latter was, according to some assessments, partially based on the former, leading to charges of. In view of the imagery in the source texts (which Burton even emphasized further, especially by adding extensive footnotes and appendices on Oriental sexual mores ) and the strict laws on obscene material, both of these translations were printed as private editions for subscribers only, rather than published in the usual manner. Burton's original 10 volumes were followed by a further six (seven in the Baghdad Edition and perhaps others) entitled The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night, which were printed between 1886 and 1888.

It has, however, been criticized for its 'archaic language and extravagant idiom' and 'obsessive focus on sexuality' (and has even been called an 'eccentric ' and a 'highly personal reworking of the text'). Later versions of the Nights include that of the doctor, issued from 1898 to 1904.

It was translated into English by, and issued in 1923. Like Payne's and Burton's texts, it is based on the Egyptian recension and retains the erotic material, indeed expanding on it, but it has been criticized for inaccuracy. A notable recent version, which reverts to the recension, is a critical edition based on the 14th or 15th-century manuscript in the, originally used by Galland. This version, known as the Leiden text, was compiled in Arabic by (1984) and rendered into English by Husain Haddawy (1990). Mahdi argued that this version is the earliest extant one (a view that is largely accepted today) and that it reflects most closely a 'definitive' coherent text ancestral to all others that he believed to have existed during the period (a view that remains contentious). Still, even scholars who deny this version the exclusive status of 'the only real Arabian Nights' recognize it as being the best source on the original style and linguistic form of the mediaeval work and praise the Haddawy translation as 'very readable' and 'strongly recommended for anyone who wishes to taste the authentic flavour of those tales'.

An additional second volume of Arabian nights translated by Haddawy, composed of popular tales not present in the Leiden edition, was published in 1995. In 2008 a new English translation was published by Penguin Classics in three volumes. It is translated by Malcolm C. Lyons and Ursula Lyons with introduction and annotations by Robert Irwin. This is the first complete translation of the Macnaghten or Calcutta II edition (Egyptian recension) since Burton's.

It contains, in addition to the standard text of 1001 Nights, the so-called 'orphan stories' of and as well as an alternative ending to The seventh journey of from 's original French. As the translator himself notes in his preface to the three volumes, '[N]o attempt has been made to superimpose on the translation changes that would be needed to 'rectify'. Repetitions, non sequiturs and confusions that mark the present text,' and the work is a 'representation of what is primarily oral literature, appealing to the ear rather than the eye'. The Lyons translation includes all the poetry (in plain prose paraphrase) but does not attempt to reproduce in English the internal rhyming of some prose sections of the original Arabic.

Moreover, it streamlines somewhat and has cuts. In this sense it is not, as claimed, a complete translation. Timeline [ ]. Illustration of One Thousand and One Nights by, Iran, 1853 The One Thousand and One Nights and various tales within it make use of many innovative, which the storytellers of the tales rely on for increased drama, suspense, or other emotions. Some of these date back to earlier, and, while others were original to the One Thousand and One Nights. Frame story [ ] An early example of the, or, is employed in the One Thousand and One Nights, in which the character narrates a set of tales (most often ) to the Sultan over many nights. Many of Scheherazade's tales are also frame stories, such as the being a collection of adventures related by Sindbad the Seaman to Sindbad the Landsman.

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The concept of the frame story dates back to ancient, and was introduced into Persian and Arabic literature through the. Embedded narrative [ ] An early example of the ' technique can be found in the One Thousand and One Nights, which can be traced back to earlier Persian and Indian storytelling traditions, most notably the of ancient. The Nights, however, improved on the Panchatantra in several ways, particularly in the way a story is introduced. In the Panchatantra, stories are introduced as analogies, with the frame story referring to these stories with variants of the phrase 'If you're not careful, that which happened to the louse and the flea will happen to you.' In the Nights, this didactic framework is the least common way of introducing the story, but instead, a story is most commonly introduced through subtle means, particularly as an answer to questions raised in a previous tale.